A groundbreaking archaeological study has uncovered the first known evidence of systematic human bone modification in Neolithic China, fundamentally challenging the prevailing understanding of mortuary and ritual practices in the ancient world. The discovery, located in the sophisticated Liangzhu civilization of the Yangzi River Delta, reveals a complex, organized tradition of shaping human remains into various forms, a practice without precedent in the region’s long history. This finding suggests that as one of China’s earliest urban societies emerged, its relationship with the dead evolved in dramatic and previously undocumented ways.
The research, detailed in the journal Scientific Reports, presents a meticulous analysis of skeletal remains recovered from Liangzhu sites that flourished between 5,300 and 4,500 years ago. Out of 183 human bones examined by a team led by Dr. Junmei Sawada, 52 specimens showed unmistakable signs of deliberate alteration. These worked bones were not found in traditional graves but were often discarded in the moats and canals that characterized Liangzhu’s urban centers. This starkly contrasts with the established burial customs that dominated Chinese cultures for millennia, which emphasized respect for ancestors and the integrity of the body after death. The Liangzhu culture’s unique approach to these remains opens a new window into the social and ideological transformations that accompanied the rise of urbanism.
An Unprecedented Mortuary Practice
The tradition of working with human bone appears to have been a well-established and enduring cultural practice within the Liangzhu society, lasting for over two centuries. Its sudden appearance, with no known precursors in earlier Chinese prehistory, signals a significant cultural shift. Archaeologists believe this development may be linked to the rapid social changes brought on by urbanization. As populations grew and congregated in sophisticated centers, traditional kinship bonds may have weakened, changing how individuals outside of close family networks were perceived after death. These modified remains could represent what scholars term the “anonymous dead,” individuals whose social identity was effaced, allowing their physical remains to be repurposed as raw material. This practice suggests a profound re-envisioning of mortality and the self in a complex, burgeoning society. The discovery forces a re-evaluation of early Chinese mortuary traditions, which were previously thought to be more uniform and conservative. The Liangzhu people, through this systematic process, demonstrated a vastly different worldview, where human bones could be transformed and utilized in a manner seen nowhere else in the region.
The Liangzhu Cultural Context
The Liangzhu civilization, named for the archaeological site first discovered near the city of Hangzhou, was one of ancient China’s most advanced and organized societies. Flourishing in the Yangzi River Delta, it was remarkable for its monumental achievements in engineering and social organization. The culture is celebrated for its massive earthwork tombs, intricate water management systems, and, most famously, its production of exquisite jade ceremonial objects. These accomplishments point to a highly stratified society with a powerful elite capable of mobilizing large labor forces for complex construction and artistic projects. The discovery of a bone-working industry adds another layer of complexity to this already sophisticated culture. The urban centers, interconnected by canals and moats, were not only hubs of political and economic power but also centers of unique ritualistic production. The very waterways that served as infrastructure for the living became the final resting place for these modified human remains, suggesting a deep symbolic connection between the city’s lifeblood and its novel mortuary rituals.
Catalog of Modified Remains
The research team cataloged the altered bones into six distinct categories, revealing a standardized and multifaceted tradition. The modifications were not random but followed specific patterns, indicating a shared cultural knowledge and purpose behind the work. The variety of forms suggests a range of potential uses, from ritualistic objects to utilitarian tools.
Skull Cups and Masks
Among the most recognizable artifacts were skull cups, which were crafted by cutting a human calvarium—the top part of the skull—horizontally at or above eye level to create a bowl-like shape. These objects had been found previously in elite Liangzhu burials, suggesting they held significant ceremonial value. Another enigmatic category consisted of mask-like facial skulls. These were created by splitting the facial bones along the coronal sutures, though their exact function remains a subject of speculation. The creation of objects for display or ritual from the most identifiable part of the human body highlights the profound nature of this practice.
Utilitarian Bone Tools
Not all modifications were purely symbolic. The study also documented long limb bones that were deliberately shaped at their ends, with some showing wear patterns consistent with their use as scraping or engraving tools. Mandibles, or lower jawbones, were also found with their bases intentionally flattened, perhaps to create a stable handle or base for a tool or other construction. The transformation of human remains into everyday implements represents a complete departure from the concept of ancestral veneration, treating the body as a practical resource. This utilitarian approach further underscores the notion that the individuals whose bones were used may have been stripped of their personal identity.
A Unique Child’s Skull
Perhaps the most intriguing and singular artifact uncovered was the skull of a child, estimated to be between 8 and 10 years old. This specimen featured two carefully polished perforations on its posterior, accompanied by a series of linear abrasion marks across its surface. This object has no known parallel in Chinese archaeology, making its purpose a profound mystery. Its uniqueness suggests it may have been part of a highly specific, and perhaps uncommon, ritual. The careful polishing indicates a high degree of attention and skill, differentiating it from less-finished artifacts and pointing to a special significance.
Evidence of Organized Production
The investigation revealed that the modification of human bones was not a scattered or informal practice but rather an organized industry. A significant concentration of these worked bones was discovered at the Zhongjiagang site, which is believed to have been the primary workshop area for the Liangzhu culture. This geographical clustering, combined with the standardized techniques observed across different artifacts, strongly suggests a systematic production process. Rather than being isolated acts by individuals, the evidence points to a dedicated craft or ritual specialty practiced by a specific group within the society. Further supporting this interpretation is the curious fact that approximately 80% of all the modified bones appeared to be unfinished. This high rate of abandonment could suggest several possibilities: perhaps the process was technically difficult and prone to failure, or perhaps the unfinished pieces were intentionally discarded as part of a ritual or symbolic routine. The act of depositing these incomplete objects into the canals and moats may have been a crucial step in the overall cultural practice.
Interpreting the Rituals
The discovery raises critical questions about the beliefs that drove the Liangzhu people to systematically alter human remains. While the precise meaning is likely lost to time, scholars have proposed compelling theories based on the archaeological context. The disposal of these artifacts in waterways, rather than in graves, suggests a departure from ancestor worship. This act may have been a way of dealing with the dead who fell outside traditional kinship structures, such as enemies, slaves, or social outcasts. In the dense, urban environment of Liangzhu, where unrelated people lived in close proximity, new social mechanisms for managing the dead may have become necessary. The process of modifying bones could have been a ritualized “un-making” of the person, a stripping of identity that allowed their remains to be safely reintegrated into the world as objects or materials. This interpretation aligns with the idea of the “anonymous dead,” where the memory of the individual was intentionally erased. This practice, so alien to what was known of ancient China, illustrates how the rise of cities reshaped not only landscapes but also the most fundamental human conceptions of life, death, and the self.
